简介：EfficientactivationofTlymphocytesthroughTcellreceptor(TCR)dependsontwosignals．Thefirstsignal(signalone)isderivedfromTCRinteractingwiththeMHC／antigenicpeptidecomplex，whichconfersantigenicspecificitytotheimmuneresponse．Thesecondsignal(signaltwo)isprovidedbytheengagementofTcellsurfacereceptorswiththeirspecificligandsonantigenpresentingcell(APC)[1]．Asthereisgrowingevidenceforbidirectionalcommunicationsandsocalled“reversesignaling”fortraditionallydefinedligands，thedistinctionbetweenreceptorsandligandsbecomeslessclear．Thesepairsofmoleculesshouldbeviewedascosignalingmoleculesfunctioningincellswhichwouldexpresseitherthereceptorsortheligands.

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简介：ObjectiveTinnitusandhyperacusisaresubjectivesymptomswhichcanbereportedbypeopleofanyage.Althoughtinnitusandhyperacusiscanhaveanegativeeffectonchilddevelopment,thesesymptomsarecommonlyoverlookedbytheirparentsandclinicians.Inthispaper,wereviewclinicalreportsontinnitusandhyperacusisinchildrenandbasicscientificstudiesonthesedisordersinordertoprovideupdatesofthesedisordersinthepediatricpopulation.Recentstudieshavefoundthattinnitusandhyperacusisarenotuncommoninchildren,especiallyinthosewithconductiveandsensorineuralhearingloss.Theparentsandcliniciansshouldpayattentionwhenchildrenshowabnormalbehaviorsandespeciallywhentheydevelophearingloss.Sincethereisnoobjectivemeasurementfortinnitusandhyperacusis,thediagnosisinchildrencanbechallenging.TinnitusandhyperacusisarealsocommoninWilliamssyndromeandautismbutthemechanismsarestillnotclear.Highdosesofsalicylateandnoiseexposurecaninducetinnitus.Animalstudieshavedeterminedlackofinhibitionintheauditorycortexandtheinferiorcolliculusmaybecriticalfortinnitusandhyperacusisgeneration.Thenon-classicauditorysystemmayalsobeinvolvedintheawarenessandtoleranceoftinnitusandhyperacusis.

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