Translation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Moment in Peking from Domestication and Foreignization

Translation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Moment in Peking from Domestication and Foreignization

张娜

Abstract: According to Nida’s classification of culture, the thesis analyzes the translation methods Lin Yutang in his masterpiece Moment in Peking adopts when confronting special Chinese items in ecological, material, social, regional and linguistic culture. The author of the paper, based on considerable examples, reaches the conclusion: To disseminate Chinese culture more effectively, Lin employs transliteration and literal translation methods in most cases, with free translation as an aid. The paper would guide the students major in translation to choose proper translation methods as they go in for the translation of culture.

Key Words:Culture-loaded words; Moment in Peking; Domestication; Foreignizationn

1. Introduction

     Culture of a certain area leaves special stamps on its language, which decides the close relationship between culture and language. In recent years, researchers have become increasingly interested in the translation of culture-loaded words in literary works.

     Since China now plays an indispensable role on the world stage, the task of diffusing Chinese value and ideas becomes more and more necessary. “Lin Yutang is the pioneer who has contributed his whole life to cross-cultural communication,” and his “contributions to bridging Western and Eastern culture and to promoting international world’s knowledge about China through his works undoubtedly of great significance.” (Yao Chi 110). He is a world-famous literary translator and bi-lingual writer. He creates a lot of famous works by English, among which Moment in Peking has received great reputation. This novel, published in 1940, covers the chaotic events in China from the Boxer Rebellion to the early part of Sino-Japanese War by deeply depicting the ups and downs of three big families Yao, Tseng and New, showing a vivid and overall picture of Chinese national culture to westerners. Therefore, the study over the translation of the Chinese culture in

Moment in Peking is in great significance.

     Related to this topic, the studies are mainly organized in three aspects: the relations among language, culture and translation and the perspectives of analyzing culture translation.

     When it comes to literature translation, culture must be mentioned. Wang Zining, in his article “A Study on Tanslation’s Future---An Analysis of Language, Culture and Translating” maintains that there are more and more ways to transfer meanings instead of specific words, however, it is limited that he employs two simple examples to prove it. Despite his lack of grounds, the article still shows value in its detailed explanation of language, culture and translation, which is of great help for the thesis. Furthermore, translation theory is regarded as a guidance during the process of translation. As for translation theory adopted to analyze the cultural-loaded words translation in Moment in Peking, Feng Liping and her partners (38) apply to the strategy of domestication and foreignization, while Lu Jianlan(15) uses skopotheorie. Feng Liping illustrates five translation methods, including word-for-word translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus literal translation and transliteration plus annotation, with respective cases from Moment in Peking. Then she concludes that LinYutang dominantly takes advantage of foreigization strategy when he conveys Chinese culture to westerners. Her article is logical and persuasive. In contrast, Lu Jianlan views the culture translation in Moment in Peking from the respective of skopotheorie, indicating the dominance of documentary translation strategy. Generally, the strategies of domestication and foreignization are used more frequently than skopotheorie. Hence, the thesis is intended to proceed in the light of domestication and foreignization in order to reveal what specific translation methods Lin applies to transfer certain sort of cultures.

     This thesis contains three parts: Part1 is the introduction, which includes a brief introduction of Lin Yutang and his work

Moment in Peking as well as the literature review. Part2 offers an introduction of domestication and foreignization in which the author respectively illustrates their definitions, the translation methods based on them and their function. The second section of this part makes a detailed case analysis on the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in Moment in Peking from angles of ecology, material, society, religion and linguistics. Part3 concludes the thesis with a brief summary of the major findings.

2. An Analysis of the Culture-loaded Wordsin Moment in Peking

     It is widely acknowledged that culture and language are closely related. As an indispensable part of culture, language play an important role in the communication and exchange of different cultures. Since people in different nations have various social system, values, customs, and, of course, languages, their culture are distinctive. Language, a part of culture, is stamped with the color of different cultures. Accordingly, in the process of translation, due to the persity of culture, translators can hardly find perfect equivalent words to replace the words with specific culture.

2.1 Textual Analyses Through Domestication and Foreignization

     Translation is a high-skilled business, requiring comprehensive qualities, in which apart from the language proficiency, mastering translation strategies is also in great importance. When translation strategies are mentioned, domestication and foreignization must be talked since translation, an activity involved in the exchange of two different culture, will inevitably slant to one side. In Dictionary of Translation Studies, domestication is “a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while foreignization is “a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”.

     Xiong Bing in his article “ 翻译研究中的概念混淆” points out that domesticating strategy and foreignizing strategy both contain some specific translation methods. Precisely speaking, liberal translation, imitation, variation translation and recreation follow domesticating strategy, while zero translation, transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation abide by the translation strategy of foreignization.

     Domestication has its own advantages and disadvantages, so does foreignization. A novel translated by the strategy of domestication is easier for readers to understand and accept. It loses the original literature and culture, however, depriving readers’ right of enjoying foreign countries. Besides, when translators in weak countries adopt domestication to translate their own works of literature to a strong nation’s language, they aggravate the cultural colonization and weaken the developing countries’ cultural identity. In contrast, translation versions of foreignization are not that natural. Every cloud has a silver lining. These kind of literature have three merits. First, it enable the target language to develop itself by introducing in linguistic structures and cultural elements from the source language. Second, it can facilitate the exchange and communication of different cultures. Thirdly, language workers of developing countries can utilize foreignizating strategy to resist cultural colonization. The debate has been going on.

2.2 Case Analyses on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words

     According to Nida, culture-loaded words are the words that “are easily recognizable as typical of one particular culture and that could only find similarities but not identical identities in another culture”. (Qi Yana 31). He also put forward a categorization of culture that is similar to that of Peter New mark: (1) ecological culture; (2) material culture; (3) social culture; (4) religious culture; and (5) linguistic culture. (Cheng Shiqing 18). To be specific, ecological culture-loaded words refer to the words with ecological elements, such as climates, animals, plants, mountains and so on. Material culture-loaded words include words about materials in daily life, like clothes, food, tools and so on. Social culture-loaded words are those related to people’s life, including their customs, lifestyles, values, etc. Religious culture-loaded words are the words linked to Chinese religion, such as Buddhism and Taoism. And the linguistic culture-loaded words contain “words and expressions whose features can be seen in terms of phonetic and grammatical system”. (Cheng Shiqing 28).

     In the following part, the author of the thesis will make a detailed analysis on the translation methods Lin applied to when he translated the five kinds of cultures.

2.2.1 Case Analyses of Chinese Ecological Culture

     As cited above, ecological culture-loaded words refer to the words with ecological elements, such as climates, animals, plants, mountains and so on. Chinese and westerners live in different geographical location, thus possessing perse ideas about the same item. Moment in Peking is a novel that describes the reality in China, excellent translation methods should be applied to ensure English readers would not misunderstand.

     From the table above, most of unique Chinese ecological culture-loaded words are translated literally in order to infuse more peculiar knowledge about China to English speakers.

     Lin Yutang translates “凤仙花” into “Touch-me-nots” by liberal translation. The seed pod of the flower will open when it is touched and the seed will spray out. This is the reason why it is called “touch-me-out” in English. In China, girls use it to dye their fingernails. Lin, a linguistic master, who knows both English and Chinese very well, finds the equivalent word for “凤仙花”. He sweeps the way for foreigners to clearly comprehend what the specific substance is. 

     As one can observe in the table, Lin renders “腊梅” as “wax plum”. From my perspective, Lin makes a mistake here for he confuses the Chinese character “蜡”with “腊”. “腊月” is the last month of a year according to Chinese lunar calendar. “腊梅” in China refer to flowers that are in bloom in winter, often being used to symbolize a person who has strong will. However, “蜡” is a form of oil which produced by certain animals, plants and mineral elements, which can be translated as “wax” in English. Thus, I speculate about a mistranslation. Considering the cognitive environment of the westerners, I suggest that it can be translated into “Lamei” with some explanation for the specific flower. In this way can the foreigners attain a deeper comprehension about both Chinese lunar calendar and the flower.

     From the translation of the culture-loaded words, most of them are rendered with the methods of literal translation. While not all of the Chinese terms have a counterparts in west, Lin makes some compensation by providing further interpretation.

2.2.2 Case Analyses of Chinese Material Culture

     In this part, the author will give you a comprehensive analysis of Lin’s translation methods in translating the material culture-loaded words. As is introduced in the former chapter, material culture-loaded words are those material things in the everyday life. Now, let’s have a look at the translation in these respects: food, clothes, housing and furniture.

The Translation of Food:

1. “Then she brought in chestnut pudding, noodle soup, chiaotse, and ‘united happiness’ popo for the young ladies”.(Lin Yutang 125).
2. “Now she still took the dumplings, and she took the lapacho, a gruel eaten on the eighth day of December, consisting of glutinous millet, rice, glutinous rice… ” (Lin Yutang 146).

     In the above two examples, Chinese food, including 栗子糕、汤面、饺子、双喜饽饽、元宵、腊八儿粥 are respectively translated into “chestnut pudding”, “noodle soup”, “chiaotse”, “‘united happiness’ popo”, “dumplings”, and “lapacho”. Among them, 栗子糕，汤面，元宵 have the equivalents in English, while the rest of them do not, thus transliteration is applied to translate 饺子、双喜饽饽、腊八儿粥。

     Compared with the food in the west, Chinese food is various and bountiful. In Moment in Peking, there are a great deal of Chinese delicious food. For instance, the translation of “腊八儿粥” is very efficient. It is well acknowledged that “粥”in Chinese language can be expressed by “porridge” in English. Since in the following paragraph, he costs much rooms to introduce “腊八儿粥”, westerners can gain a vivid picture of the cooking procedure and the taste. Lin utilizes Chinese pinyin here to convey the meaning so that readers can get a glimpse of Chinese catering culture.

     Knowing that eastern food drastically differs from that of west, especially for those we never have been to China, the majority of them are unfamiliar for target readers. To manage them in literal translation is conducive to introducing the splendid Chinese food culture to readers and speeding up the communication of culture between east and the west.

The Translation of Clothes:

    Moment in Peking, a novel depicting the life of three wealthy families, compromises a variety of exquisite and luxurious clothes, especially that of the young ladies, which vividly demonstrating the conditions and lifestyle of upper class at that time.

3. “She had a small feet and exquisite jet-black hair done in a loose coiffure, and wore an old broad-sleeved pink jacket, trimmed around the collar and the sleeve ends with three-inch broad, very pale green satin”(LinYutang 4).

一双金莲儿，纤纤盈握，乌油油的发髻，松松的挽着。身穿一件桃红的短褂子，宽大的袖子，镶着三寸宽绿缎子的滚边儿（Zhang Zhenyu 3）.

     “She” refers to Coral. Here, the author describes Coral’s shoes, clothes and her beautiful hair, giving the reader a whole image about Coral and her taste of clothes, and even from the word “loose”, readers know her personality. Westerners are not familiar to Chinese clothes at 1990s, but from the description of Lin Yutang, they can acknowledge what the upper class wear at that time and further understand China’s social phenomena.

4. “Mulan had come in a rich heavy blue dress that she had made out of an ancient ‘tribute’ brocade of which they say ‘as if made for loyalty.’ It had been part of her dowry. She had cut it into the most modern molded fashion. Today she was wearing her brassiere, the last word in modernity. Her waist was small, her hair full and jet-black, her eyes liquid and her eyebrows drawn out toward her temples”( Lin Yutang 578).

木兰今天穿的是一件鲜艳的海蓝色旗袍儿，是用老贡缎做的，人都说这种料子是皇族穿的。这料子原是她的嫁妆，现在按最新式样剪裁的。今天她穿了奶罩儿，可以说是当时最时髦的东西。她的腰细，头发漆黑而浓厚，两眼是秋水般明丽，双眉画入两鬓(Zhang Zhenyu 546).

     This paragraph represents Mulan’s wearing when she appears in front of Cao Lihua, a girl her husband Sunya loves. Carefully comparing the date, Mulan shows her kindness and intelligence. Mulan was born a pretty girl, becoming more outstanding with her erudite knowledge and more attractive with her capacity of dealing with troublesome. The more detailed the author depicts her beauty, the more readers can realize her noble characteristics. Lin adopts domestication to translate 旗袍儿, removing the culture bias to attain fluency.

The Translation of Housing and Furniture：

    “Standing on the bridge, they saw that the canal widened into a small pond, about forty feet across on the southern side, while a covered terrace with balconied seats all around jutted into the pond with a wooden board bearing three characters in cabbage green, reading, ‘Terrace of Swirling Waters’”(LinYutang 339).

立在桥上，看见那条小溪汇而为池，在南端大约四十尺宽。池畔有一水榭，上面有露台，台上座位环绕周围，水榭的基础一部分在陆地，一部分深入水中，上面有一木匾，匾上刻有三个石绿颜色的字，是“洄水榭”(Zhang Zhenyu 318).

     Literal translation and free translation are both used in this creation. 石绿is rendered as “cabbage green” by free translation, while “洄水榭” as “Terrace of Swirling Waters” by literal translation. The reason why Lin applies free translation when “石绿” occurs is that according to the cognitive environment of English-speakers, they can guess the color of the characters. However, the translation of “洄水榭” maintains the flavor of Chinese language, enabling foreigners to be indulged into the endless ocean of Chinese culture and literature.

5. “Several inlaid blackwood tables were laid out, and the tea service of cloisonné pots and cups in square, beveled shapes lent a touch of antique luxury”(Lin Yutang 340).

里面有几张镶嵌花纹的乌木桌子，上面摆着形状正方上端向外开敞的景泰蓝茶壶茶碗，这种质料图形显得古雅而豪华(Zhang Zhenyu 318).

     In this sentence, the author mainly applies to domestication, with “blackwood” for “乌木” and “tea service of cloisonné pots and cups” for “景泰蓝茶壶茶碗”. While Chinese architecture are in great variety with no exact counterpart in West, a strategy of domestication is proper and feasible here.

     The author analyzes the translation of material culture-loaded words with large number of examples in food, clothes and housing and furniture. As a result, transliteration, transliteration plus explanation, and are frequently used, with few free translation applied in some cases.

2.2.3 Case Analyses of Chinese Social Culture

     Social culture-loaded words contain the expressions about a society’s own unique folk customs, lifestyle, patterns of behavior and so on. Now let’s appreciate Lin’s excellent translation of social culture.

The Translation of Chinese Address:

     Unlike that in West, Chinese address is quite complicated since the paternal relatives and maternal relatives are not the same. At the beginning of the book, Lin Yutang is so careful that he lists the characters in the book and some of the Chinese terms of address. He points out that “[S]ervents have to distinguish among the wife and concubines of the older generations, and the wives and concubines of the younger generations, the young mistresses who are the daughters-in-law and the mistresses who are the daughters of the family, etc.” 

7. “Like Mulan, she called Mr. and Mrs. Yao Father and Mother. Mulan called her Tachieh(elder sister) and so Mulan herself, although the eldest daughter, was called Erh Hsiaochieh( number two daughter), and Mochow was called San Hsiaochieh(number three daughter) in the household” (Lin Yutang 12)．

她像木兰一样，也叫姚大爷夫妇爸爸妈妈。木兰叫她大姐。木兰虽然是姚家的大小姐，就改叫二小姐，莫愁就叫三小姐了(Zhang Zhenyu 11).

     In the book, when Lin introduces Coral to readers, he uses transliteration plus explanation. Hsiaochieh, in accordance with Lin’s address list, refers to an unmarried daughter of a higher-class family in China. As a result, the Western readers not only can feel the foreignness but also understand the relationship among Coral, Mulan and Mochow.

8. “Mulan, all confused, could not say either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ but perform the usual ceremonial bowing and muttered in a trembling voice, ‘Tseng Laoyeh, Ten-thousand fortunes! I greet you!’ ”(Lin 34).

木兰觉得很难为情，不知道硕士，还是说不是，就照普通规矩，以颤抖的声音说：“曾老爷万福，给您请安”(Zhang Zhenyu 32).

     According to the list Lin makes before he starts the book, Laoyeh and Shaoyeh, or “old master” and “young master” can generally stand for the father and sons, from the point of view of servant. In this sentence, Mulan shows her respect by saying Tseng Laoyeh and a special Chinese greeting “Ten-thousand fortunes!” Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation when he expresses Chinese terms老爷 and 万福.

     During translating Chinese address, Lin takes advantage of transliteration and transliteration plus explanation in most cases. There are some other examples:

The Translation of Chinese Customs:

     The book is such a masterpiece that it describes various Chinese customs and traditions, such as wedding, funeral, fortune-telling, etc.

9. “Although not strictly a ‘child daughter-in-law,’ she often came to live with Tsengs whenever they asked for her and her own family could spare her”(Lin Yutang 44).

虽不是真正的“童养媳”，曾家若每次接她来住，有正赶上她家不需要帮忙做事的时候，她就常到曾家来住(Zhang Zhenyu 42).

     Lin Yutang uses “child daughter-in-law” to represent the Chinese term 童养媳, whose marriage is decided by her parents when she is a young girl. Traditionally, the girl grows up in her prospective husband’s home and when she grows up she gets married. A strategy of literal translation is adopted here. In west countries, the wife of a man is always called by the man’s parents as “daughter-in-law”, hence, receivers can interpret what the item means.

10. “The funeral was socially known as that of an “external relative,” that is, a relative of a woman married into the family, and all local officials and gentry paid their respects” (Lin 70).

这个葬礼，地方上人都知道是曾家的外亲，地方官和士绅都来吊祭(Zhang Zhenyu 67).

     Here, 外亲 is translated into “external relative,” that is, a relative of a woman married into the family. Using literal translation plus explanation, the author clearly show the denotation and connotation of the Chinese word外亲, giving readers a better view of Chinese kindred.

11. “But it was too much to expect without tsunghsi, and this is the last resort, since the doctor was already doing all he could”(Lin Yutang 82).

而冲喜已经是最后的一个办法，因为医生已经是人事已尽，束手无策(Zhang Zhenyu 78).

     Since in the former part, the author writes “This put a new complexion upon their original idea of counteracting the sickness by a wedding”, the transliteration “tsunghsi” can be easily understood. In the ancient China, people always thought that sickness is caused by something evil and that the patient would cure when he got married. It is “冲喜” in Chinese. The word will surely stimulate westerners to know more about the unique Chinese conventions, which is conductive to the development of China’s language and the spread the China’s culture.

     Large quantities of Chinese social-loaded words are included into the book, and their translation are extensively accepted.

     In short, when Chinese address occurs, Lin conducts them by transliteration, which shows the strict hierarchy in China at that times. As for the special customs, He adopts transliteration with some contextual hints as assistance to let more Chinese customs been known to the world.

2.2.4 Case Analyses of Chinese Religious Culture

     Religious difference is a big issue in some countries which even causes cruel wars. There are many beliefs in the world, including Christianism, Buddhism, Islam and so on. Due to the variety of the religion, the culture and language related to it certainly differ from nation to nation. China has three major religions named iBuddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, which are regarded as the resource of Chinese people’s noble value and excellent qualities.

The religion involved in Moment in Peking are mainly Taoism and Buddhism. Yao Sian, Mulan’s father, is a Taoist. When Mulan reaches marriage age, “the nonconformist Mr. Yao was liberal towards Western ideas, and even talked about ‘free marriage’ for his daughters---meaning marriage by the boy’s and the girl’s own choice---which fitted the Taoist doctrine of noninterference with nature”. (Lin Yutang 142)Taoists pursue the freedom of inner world, thus most of them going away from the bustling reality. They object to the sophisticated conventions and traditions while advocate to let things take their own course. In the story, Mr. Yao then shaved off his hair and went out of home. Lin renders “ 道法自然” with “noninterference with nature”. It is free translation. While westerners do not have ideas of Tao, the particular philosophy in China, liberal translation method can give them a deeper understanding. 

Except Taoist words, there also exist many other religious culture-loaded words, such as “老天爷”, “观音大士” and “王爷”, which are respectively translated into “Old Father Heaven”, “Goddess”, and “The King of Hell”, adopting both domestication and foreignization. Besides, the words for fortune-telling, such as “生辰八字” is rendered as “ ‘eight characters’ of their birthday and hour”. It is a literal translation, with the end of keeping the special Chinese culture. More translations is listed in the table.

     Due to the complicated nature of religion, Lin employs either domestication or foerignization in different cases.

2.2.5 Case Analyses of Chinese Linguistic Culture

     Through over five thousand years’ evolvement, Chinese civilization has made enormous strides. Consequently, Chinese language has formed its own linguistic features. In Moment in Peking, there are large number of idioms, proverbs and old sayings in Chinese, therefore exhibiting the greatness of Chinese culture and Chinese language.

     Chinese people are used to employing four-character idioms on various occasions. In most cases, Lin translates them literally.

     Although such translation versions dismiss the aesthetic perception of Chinese language, they are faithful to the original text.

3. Conclusion

Translation is a very complicated process which plays a great important role in the cultural communication and language development. Translator, as the agent for transferring message from one language to another, are required to possess comprehensive capabilities, such as language proficiency, the master of translation strategy, and the awareness of social culture, among which language proficiency is a fundamental tool of translation, and the strategies of translation and the awareness of culture are two crucial elements to improve the quality of translation versions. It is widely acknowledged that culture translation is a tough issue in the translation field. This thesis analyses the cultural translation strategy adopted in Li Yutang’s masterpiece

Moment in Peking. The work introduces Chinese culture to westerners in an overall aspect. Therefore, the study of it is valuable.

There are two major parts in this thesis. In the first part, the author introduces two different translation strategies including their origin, definition and the debate over them. Domestication is a translation strategy that is inclined to target language, taking out the foreignness to obtain fluency. On the contrary, the strategy of foreignization tries to maintain the foreignness. For readers, the translation version from domestication and foreignization is totally different. Discovering the political function of translation strategies, Venuti believes that foreignization is a better one for it helps the exchange of two cultures and the development of the weak nation’s language. There is no hard evidence to prove which one is better because it depends on the purpose of translation, the types of source text, the group of target readers and so on. The second part, the main content of the thesis, focuses on the cultural translation strategy adopted in Lin Yutang’s Moment in Peking. Based on many translation of ecological culture-loaded words, you can conclude that Lin prefers to literal translation when translating such words. The author analyzes the translation of material culture-loaded words with large number of examples in food, clothes and housing and furniture. As a result, transliteration, transliteration plus explanation, and are frequently used, with few free translation applied in some cases. As for social culture-loaded words, transliteration is adopted more. Then, many religious culture translation are listed from which readers can easily draw the conclusion that the strategy of domestication and foreignization are both adopted. Finally, from some translation cases about Chinese four-character idioms, one can gain a glimpse of Dr. Lin’s strong tendency of applying literal translation.

To sum up, Lin Yutang, in his process of creating a long story, mainly adopts transliteration and literal translation, in hope of giving westerners a comprehensive and vivid picture about China. Since

Moment in Peking, just like an encyclopedia about China, is brimming with Chinese culture, it is hard to collect all culture-loaded words in one study, thus more researches should be made.

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